Using Primary Sources

Most students study history using only secondary sources—articles, reference books, and textbooks—all written at some point after the actual event. Secondary sources tend to interpret or analyze historical events.

Primary sources, on the other hand, were created during the time period being studied. They reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer. Primary sources include autobiographies, diaries, e-mails, interviews, letters, minutes, news film footage, official records, photographs, raw research data, speeches, art, drama, music, novels, poetry, buildings, clothing, DNA, furniture, jewelry, pottery, etc. These sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period.

Today, the Internet provides access to a wealth of primary resources. In earlier years, one would have had to travel great distances to various libraries and museums to gain access to this information.

The American Library Association’s Reference and User Services Association has posted an article titled Using Primary Sources on the Web, which can be used as an exercise in critical thinking. It provides information on

• Finding primary sources
• Evaluating primary sources (including, among other things, understanding the purpose of the website where the primary sources are displayed and the credentials of the person who created the website)
• Citing websites appropriately

Repositories of Primary Resources contains links to Internet sites for primary sources all over the world. Want to find a digitized photo of a street scene in Colorado in the mid-late 1800s? Do you want to find crime reports for the United States in 1935? Do you want to see an original score written by Beethoven? Do enough searching on this site and you will find such information.

The Library of Congress is in the process of digitizing many of the important documents in American history. As of the writing of this blog entry, they have posted documents from 1763-1877.

These are just some of the many sources for primary resources on the Internet. For a particular topic of interest, do an Internet search using the subject of your search (e.g., Civil War women) plus the words “primary source.”

The Civil War

After more than 150 years, there is still a debate about the cause of The Civil War. Did it start because of slavery or because of state’s rights? After studying the subject, gifted students might choose sides of the controversy and defend their opinions.

There are some excellent websites to consult when studying the Civil War.

• Civil War Trust: Saving America’s Civil War Battlefields—This site includes maps, apps for your smartphone, resources for teachers and students, and Civil War blogs.
• The Civil War: 150 Years (Part of the National Park Service website)—Includes upcoming events, information on more than 70 parks in the National Park System that have resources related to the history of the Civil War, a database of those who served in the war, news stories from the time, and the history of African Americans in the war.
• North Carolina Civil War Sesquicentennial—This site has adopted three themes—freedom, sacrifice, and memory— which are explored across all aspects of the war.
• Civil War 150 (from The History Channel)—Offers an interactive experience that provides interesting information about who fought in the Civil War, weapons that were used, how people died, the five deadliest battles, paying for the war, West Point warriors, and other topics too numerous to list.
• Civil War Battlefield Medicine—General medicine, surgery, and primary sources.
• Pictures of the Civil War (from the National Archives)—Photographs of civilians and civilian activities; military personnel, equipment, and activities; and the locations and aftermaths of battles. Because wet-plate collodion negatives required from 5 to 20 seconds exposure, there are no action photographs of the war.
• Civil War Photos—Over 1,200 Civil War images. Also included are numerous documents and maps.
• Selected Civil War Photographs (from the Library of Congress)—1,118 photographs of military personnel, preparations for battle, and battle after-effects.

Teaching Young People to Argue Persuasively

There is a big difference between fighting and arguing, with the former having a negative connotation and the latter having a positive connotation. Fighting causes hard feelings and is non-productive, while arguing can be very beneficial for all concerned. The goal of a fight is to dominate your opponent. In an argument, you succeed when you either bring your audience over to your side or at least reach a better understanding of the views of each side. We need to teach kids to argue persuasively and effectively and reward them when they do it well.

In How to Teach a Child to Argue, Jay Heinrichs states that “rhetoric doesn’t turn kids into back-sassers; it makes them think about other points of view.”

To disagree reasonably, a child must learn the three basic tools of argument: logos, ethos, and pathos. Examples of each are provided in Heinrichs’ article.

• Logos is argument by logic.
• Ethos is argument by character and employs the persuader’s personality, reputation, and ability to look trustworthy. A sterling reputation is more than just good; it’s persuasive. An adult is more likely to believe a trustworthy kid and to accept her argument.
• Pathos is argument by emotion. It plays on one’s heartstrings. When a student learns to read your emotions and play them like an instrument, he is becoming a good persuader. 

Aristotle’s Guide to Dinner Table Discourse (according to Heinrichs)—or rules for teaching young people to argue effectively:

• Argue to teach decision-making. When you argue the various sides of an issue with your kids (“Beach or mountains this summer?”), they are learning to present different options (“Both!”) and then decide which choice to follow.
• Focus on the future. Arguments about the past (“Who made the mess with the toys?”) or the present (“Good children don’t leave messes.”) are far less productive than focusing on what to do or believe: “What’s a good way to make sure that toys get cleaned up?”
• Call “fouls.” Anything that impedes debate counts as a foul: Shouting, storming out of the room, or recalling past family atrocities should instantly make you choose the opposite side.
• Reward the right emotions. Respond to screaming and anger by not responding, except to say, “Oh, come on. You can do better than that.”
• Let kids win sometimes. When they present a good argument, there’s no better teaching method than rewarding them. My overreliance on the slow cooker, for instance, made my son beg for “dry” food. “Even the cat’s meals,” he said, “aren’t all wet.” Good point. I served hamburgers next. Very dry hamburgers.

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Some other guidelines for interacting with kids and teaching them to argue effectively include

• Listen and verbally acknowledge that you have heard what the other person has said.
• Take time to think. Don’t be afraid to say you’d like to think about a point for a while and respond later. This will give time to formulate an appropriate response.
• Acknowledge the other person’s points that you agree with.
• Stick with the main point and don’t get sidetracked.
• Don’t let feelings fester. Bring up topics sooner rather than later.
• Look for a win/win solution. 

When your student gets older, encourage her to join a debate club where the art of argument is fostered. According to IDEA (The International Debate Education Association), “...debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, tolerance for divergent points of view, and rigorous self-examination. Debate is, above all, a way for those who hold opposing views to discuss controversial issues without descending to insult, emotional appeals, or personal bias.”

Teaching about Propaganda Techniques—Opening the Door to Critical Thinking

As educators and parents, we should teach students how to think, not what to think. We need to present all sides of issues and encourage debate. Propagandists, on the other hand, build the strongest possible case for their views and discourage discussion. Propaganda appeals to its audience in three ways. It

• calls for an action or opinion that it makes seem wise and reasonable.
• suggests that the action or opinion is moral and right.
• provides a pleasant feeling, such as a sense of importance or of belonging.

The website Propaganda is an excellent resource for exploring this subject. Aaron Delwiche, the author of the site, holds a doctorate in communications from the University of Washington and a B.A. in political science from the University of California at Berkeley. He is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at Trinity University.

As Delwiche states, "propaganda can be as blatant as a swastika or as subtle as a joke. Its persuasive techniques are regularly applied by politicians, advertisers, journalists, radio personalities, and others who are interested in influencing human behavior. Propagandistic messages can be used to accomplish positive social ends, as in campaigns to reduce drunk driving, but they are also used to win elections and to sell malt liquor."

Delwiche explains the importance of teaching students about propaganda, presents common propaganda techniques and common fallacies, and provides examples of propaganda in both print and video.

PBS has a list of propaganda techniques with examples.

Suggested Activities

• Have students collect advertisements and analyze what, if any, propaganda techniques were used.
• Apply propaganda techniques to current political discussions or to a unit in history being studied.
• Discuss how the use of technology has affected the use of propaganda.
• Have students take a stand on a topic of their choosing. Individually or in small groups, have them create an advertising campaign that uses a set of propaganda techniques.